Comprehensive
Lexicon
Below are brief definitions of
some terms which are used in the articles in this Times of
Refreshing website which may be unfamiliar to many readers.
Click on the word "MORE"
at the end of an entry to go to an article elsewhere on this
website that will contain a more
comprehensive definition, explanation, or clarification of that
term, and put it in context.
Transliteration
Words or phrases in italics in
the listings are transliterations of Hebrew or Greek
terms. An English transliteration is an attempt to accurately
represent the sound of a word from a foreign language
with the letters of the English alphabet.
The Hebrew and Greek
alphabets are significantly different from the common English
alphabet, and thus it is common for there to be disagreements
among scholars on just how to represent some parts of words.
There are, for instance, some "letters" in Hebrew that don't
have a direct counterpart in English, including one that sounds
somewhat like clearing one's throat while speaking the letter K.
Linguists may choose to represent this with a KH or a CH, but
neither fully expresses the original. And there are some English
letters that can have the same sound, such as some uses of C and
K. Linguists must choose arbitrarily at times just which such
letter to pick to represent the equivalent Hebrew sound.
An
attempt has been made to choose the transliterations most common
on the Internet for any given word as the main entry in each
case. Words in parentheses immediately after an entry indicate
some of the popular variant spellings in transliteration of that term.
Variant Pronunciations
Hebrew is not a static language.
It has been around for many thousands of years, and spoken by
Jewish people in widely separated parts of the world. Thus there
are many variations in how certain words are pronounced among
Jews.
Even in Bible times, the Old Testament records an incident
in which a spy was identified because he was from an Israelite
tribe in which the people were unable to pronounce the sound
"SH." So in that tribe, the word "shibboleth" was pronounced "sibboleth." Such variations are widespread today. It is common, for
instance, for the letter and sound "B" in some words to be
substituted by some Hebrew speakers for the letter and sound
"V," for "T" to be interchangeable with "TH," as well as "S" to
be changed to "SH."
An attempt has been made to choose the
pronunciation variant most common on the Internet for any given word in the
main entry list below, with other variants given in parentheses.
Translations and Definitions
An English translation,
unlike a transliteration, is an attempt to represent the
meaning of a word or phrase from another language so that
an English-speaking person can comprehend it. See the
Information page on this Times of Refreshing website for
details on the sources used for the translations and definitions
offered below.
The simple
English definitions of Greek and Hebrew root words here and
elsewhere in the
material in this collection of articles are not intended to be
scholarly expositions, but merely helpful, informal basics. Students who
wish to go into more detail on the technical nuances in the
ancient languages are encouraged to seek expert advice on
what reference works would be most useful.
Lexicon
Abib (Abiv)
Hebrew name given in the
Bible to the first month of the Hebrew calendar, occurring
in Spring. Passover and the
Feast of Unleavened Bread are
observed in this month. The word implies "green ears,"
referring to the ripening of the "ears" of barley that
occurs at this time in Israel. Abib falls in a period
spanning March or April or parts of both.
Afikomen
Hebrew term for a special
piece of matzo (unleavened bread) used in the Jewish
Passover seder.
MORE
Atonement
An English word that implies
the meaning of "reconciliation." In theology, atonement is
the term used to describe the process whereby man is
reconciled to God, from whom his sins have separated him.
MORE
Biblical Calendar
The modern calendar typically
used in the Western world is referred to as the Gregorian
Calendar. It records a solar year that begins in the middle
of winter on January 1 and runs for twelve months, through
December 31, with 365 days in most years (366 in leap
years). The calendar that is referred to in the Bible is one
that begins its first month on the new moon near the spring
equinox, with the Hebrew month of Abib. It is a lunar
calendar, based on the cycles of the moon. The year varies
in length, in a regularly recurring cycle of from twelve to
thirteen months. Most Jewish and Christian groups that
observe the annual biblical Feasts and
Holy Days use a
version of this Biblical Calendar that was established
anciently by Jewish scholars, usually referred to as the
Hebrew Calendar. Some groups, however, choose to establish a
slight variation of their own, which means that such groups
will, on occasion, observe the celebrations a day or two
before or after those who use the Hebrew Calendar and, in
some years, perhaps a month earlier or later.
MORE
Bikkurim
Hebrew term meaning "first
fruits."
MORE
Booth
Hebrew:
Sukkah. A
temporary hut built for use in the Jewish observance of the
Feast of Tabernacles,
Sukkot.
MORE
Chag Ha-Matzot (Matzoth)
Hebrew term for the
Feast of
Unleavened Bread.
MORE
Citron
Large citrus fruit resembling
a lemon in looks and taste, used as part of the Jewish
observance of Sukkot, the
Feast of Tabernacles.
Hebrew: Etrog,
Esrog.
MORE
Day of Atonement
Hebrew:
Yom Kippur. An
annual Autumn biblical Holy Day, observed on
Tishri 10.
Unlike the other seven Holy Days, which are characterized by
festive meals, this one is a "fast" day, on which no food or
liquids are consumed.
MORE
Day of Trumpets
Hebrew:
Yom Teruah. An
annual Autumn biblical Holy Day, observed on
Tishri 1.
MORE
Days of Awe
Hebrew: Yamim Noraim.
A reference in
Judaism to the ten days beginning with
Rosh Hashanah
and ending with Yom Kippur. The time period is to be
used for deep personal introspection in preparation for
Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement.
MORE
Eighth Day Assembly
Hebrew:
Shemini Atzeret.
The Autumn Holy Day that falls immediately after the
seven-day Feast of Tabernacles, observed on
Tishri 22.
MORE
Etrog (Esrog)
Hebrew term for the citron
fruit, used in the observance of Sukkot,
the Feast of Tabernacles.
MORE
Feast
In the context under
discussion in these Times of Refreshing articles, a
Feast is an annual religious observance established by God
in the Bible, a time of worship and celebration, which may
last from one to several days. Although such observances may
include festive meals and banquets, the term Feast
itself in this context actually has nothing to do with
eating. MORE
Feast of Firstfruits
An alternate title sometimes
used for the Feast of Pentecost,
used because on this day the Israelites brought the
first fruits offerings of
certain crops to the Temple in Jerusalem.
MORE
Feast of Ingathering
An alternate title sometimes
used for the Feast of Tabernacles.
MORE
Feast of Pentecost
Hebrew:
Shavuot. The
English term for the annual one-day biblical
Feast that
occurs in early summer, seven weeks after the
Feast of
Unleavened Bread.
MORE
Feast of Tabernacles
Hebrew:
Sukkot. The
English term for the Autumn seven-day Feast that occurs on
Tishri 15-21.
MORE
Feast of Unleavened Bread
Hebrew:
Chag ha-Matzot.
The Spring seven-day Feast that occurs on
Abib 15-22,
characterized in particular by the eating of only
unleavened
baked products.
MORE
Feast of Weeks
An alternate name sometimes
used for the Feast of Pentecost,
used because it fell in ancient Israel seven weeks after the
beginning of the Spring barley harvest.
MORE
First fruits (firstfruits)
In the ancient agricultural
society of Israel, first fruits were the earliest produce to
ripen from various crops, and were to be given as an
offering to God. Hebrew:
Bikkurim.
MORE
Four Species
A term in Judaism for a
collection of four plant items used in special traditional
ceremonies for Sukkot, the
Feast of Tabernacles: a palm branch, a branch of willow, a
branch of myrtle, and a citron.
MORE
Gemara
The Hebrew term for the
traditional collection of commentary by Jewish sages on the
Mishna. The
Torah is the term for the written
Law of the Old Testament of the Bible. Judaism has from
ancient times also recognized the authority of an unwritten
collection of teachings known as the "Oral Law," passed
down, it was believed, from the time of Moses to the
earliest centuries AD. In about 200 AD, this Oral Law was
codified in writing as the Mishna. For the next few
centuries, more Jewish sages discussed and debated the
content of the Mishna. Their discussions and
conclusions were eventually compiled into a collection
called the Gemara. Together, the Mishna and Gemara
comprise the Talmud.
MORE
Haggadah
A small book used by those
conducting a seder meal for the
Passover celebration. Each person at the table has one, and
follows along ...like following a script for a play. The
content recounts the events of the Exodus Passover, outlines
the rituals that are performed during the meal, and makes
commentary on the significance of these elements. It also
provides prayers that are recited at various points in the
meal. Jewish haggadah books follow a strictly traditional
content. Christian individuals and groups that observe the
Passover, including those who label themselves as
Messianic or
Hebrew Roots, may author their
own versions that apply the elements of the meal to the
sacrifice of Jesus. These may follow the Jewish style
closely, or may be very free-form variations.
Hanukkah (Chanukah)
A traditional day of
celebration in Judaism, commemorating the rescue of the
nation from the crushing rule of Syrian ruler Antiochus Epiphanes in 165 BC. It is not one of the biblical "Feasts"
or "Holy Days" established by command in the Old Testament.
But it is mentioned in passing in the New Testament in John
10: "It was the Feast of Dedication in Jerusalem, and it was
winter." The Hebrew word hanukkah means dedication,
and refers to the cleansing and rededication of the Temple
in Jerusalem to the service of God after it had been
desecrated by Antiochus.
Hebrew
An adjective which is often
applied to the ancient culture and language of the people of
Israel from the time of Moses. In modern times, it is often
informally used interchangeably with the term Jewish.
Hebrew Calendar
The typical designation of
the calendar used by the Jews to establish the dates for the
annual observances of the Feasts and
Holy Days. See
Biblical
Calendar. MORE
Hebrew Roots
Some believers in Jesus as
Messiah choose to emphasize the fact that He was a Jew
living in a "Hebrew" culture when He was on Earth. They
believe that His teachings can be better understood when
considered in the context of his "Hebrew Roots."
MORE
Holy Day
Hebrew:
Yom Tov. A
specific single day of celebration and worship established
by command in the Bible.
MORE
Israelites
The descendants of the
biblical Patriarch Jacob, whose name was changed by God to
Israel. By the time of the Exodus from Egypt, about 400
years after the death of Jacob, they were divided into
twelve clans or "tribes," each descended from one of his
twelve sons. At the time of the Exodus (circa 1450 BC), and
up to end of the reign of King Solomon (circa 900 BC), they
were considered one nation. After Solomon's death, civil war
divided the nation into two rival "Kingdoms." The Kingdom
of Judah in the southern area of the Promised Land was
primarily made up of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and
Levi, and retained control of the Temple and its worship
rituals. The Kingdom of Israel in the north was made
up of the other tribes, with the tribe of Ephraim usually
recognized as the leading tribe.
Judaism
The collection of doctrines,
traditions, customs, and teachings embraced by the Jewish
people. There are several branches of Judaism which vary
somewhat in some of these elements.
Those
who are part of the Orthodox
branch of Judaism
are very strict in exactly how they practice what
they believe to be the requirements of their faith.
If you have heard about Jews who will not even turn
on a light switch or use a car or an elevator on the weekly
Sabbath, they were likely members of this branch of
Judaism. The term "ultra-Orthodox" is often applied
to the most stringent of the sects of Orthodox Jews.
Those
who are part of the Conservative branch of
Judaism are slightly less rigid in their practice,
but still are very careful about such things as
observing the Kosher laws regarding food, and not
working on the Sabbath.
Those
who are part of Reformed Judaism recognize
very few strict requirements for daily living, and
if they follow such practices as avoiding non-Kosher
foods such as pork and
shellfish, they may view their actions as merely
part of a cultural way of life rather than as
binding commandments from God.
Judaism, in any or
all of these branches is not "the
religion of the Bible," but rather a historically evolving
religious system that has some elements rooted in the
Scriptures, along with many others that are of purely human invention.
Kapparot
The Jewish term for a custom
related to Yom Kippur. It is common only among
ultra-Orthodox Jews, and involves using a live chicken in a
ceremony intended evidently to substitute for the ancient
animal sacrifices. MORE
Liturgy
A prescribed set of customs
and traditions used in public worship services.
MORE
Lulav
The Hebrew term for a palm
branch that is held, along with a branch of willow, a branch
of myrtle, and a citron in
traditional ceremonies during the Jewish observance of
Sukkot.
MORE
Matzo (Matzoh, Matza, Matzah;
plural Matzot or Matzoth)
The Hebrew term for
a piece of unleavened bread.
Although boxes of commercial matzot are available
year around, they are eaten in particular during the
Feast of
Unleavened Bread.
MORE
Messianic
An Anglicized version of a
Hebrew term meaning "having to do with the promised Messiah
(Savior, Anointed One)" spoken of in the Old Testament. It
is primarily used in modern times to indicate someone who
practices certain elements of Judaism, but who believes that
Jesus of Nazareth came as that promised Messiah.
MORE
Mishna (Mishneh)
The Hebrew term for the
traditional collection of commentary by Jewish sages on the
Torah. The Torah is the term for the written
Law of the Old Testament of the Bible. Judaism has from
ancient times also recognized the authority of an unwritten
collection of teachings known as the "Oral Law," passed
down, it was believed, from the time of Moses to the
earliest centuries AD. In about 200 AD, this Oral Law was
codified in writing as the Mishna. For the next few
centuries, more Jewish sages discussed and debated the
content of the Mishna. Their discussions and
conclusions were eventually compiled into a collection
called the Gemara. Together, the Mishna and
Gemara comprise the Talmud.
MORE
Moed (plural:moedim)
A Hebrew term meaning
"appointed time." It is frequently translated in English
Bibles as "Feast."
MORE
Nissan, Nisan
An alternative
Hebrew name of
the first month of the Hebrew calendar, occurring in Spring.
Passover and the
Feast of Unleavened Bread are observed in
this month. The word was evidently borrowed by the Jews
while in captivity in Babylon, from the Babylonian name for
the month. In the Exodus account, the same month is called
by the Hebrew term Abib.
Passover
The English translation of
the name of the annual observance
commemorating the Exodus of the Israelites from captivity in
Egypt. (Hebrew: Pesach) In ancient times
the Hebrew term was specifically used to
designate both the day on which the lambs were killed for
the memorial supper, and to refer to the lambs. One would
"kill the Passover (Pesach)." It later came to be used in Jewish
circles as a shorthand way to refer to the whole seven-day
period of the Feast of Unleavened Bread.
MORE
Pascha
The Greek version of the word
Passover.
Pentecost
Hebrew:
Shavuot. The
annual Feast day occurring seven weeks after the time of the
Passover. Also called the
Feast of Pentecost, the
Feast of Weeks and the
Feast of Firstfruits.
MORE
Pesach
The Hebrew word for
Passover.
MORE
Rabbi
A Hebrew word meaning
"teacher." Jesus was called Rabbi by His disciples. A Rabbi
usually presides over modern Jewish synagogues. It is common
for non-Jews to assume such a Rabbi has a role similar to a
priest in the Old Testament, or a priest in religions such
as Catholicism, a role that is an "intermediary" between men
and God. This is not correct. The Rabbi is highly respected
as knowledgeable and wise regarding the Scriptures, and gifted in
sharing this with others, but not as someone a "layman" must go
through to spiritually connect with God.
Rosh Hashanah (Rosh Hashana,
Rosh Hoshana, Rosh Hoshanah, Rosh Ha-Shanah, Rosh Ha-Shana)
A Hebrew term that literally
means "head of the year," i.e., New Year's Day. It is
another name for the Day of Trumpets (Hebrew:
Yom Teruah),
the Holy Day that falls on
Tishri 1. The first day of
the year on the Hebrew Calendar
is on Abib 1 in the Spring,
so that is the "New Year" in terms of the cycle of annual
Holy Days and Feasts. But the Hebrew Calendar recognizes
other kinds of "years" that begin at different times, just
as there is a "fiscal" year in many businesses and
governments that does not start on January 1.
MORE
Sabbath
The English translation of
the Hebrew word
Shabbat, the weekly day of rest,
mentioned in the fourth of the Ten Commandments, which falls
on the seventh day of the week. It is called Saturday on
modern English calendars.
MORE
Seder
The Hebrew name of the
special ceremonial meal eaten for the Passover.
MORE
Seven Species
Seven specific crops, from
which ancient Israelites gave firstfruits at the Temple on
the Feast of Pentecost (Hebrew:
Shavuot). These crops were wheat, barley,
grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates.
MORE
Shabbat (Shabbath, Shabbos)
The Hebrew word translated
into English as Sabbath. It's
literal meaning is "a rest" or "an intermission."
MORE
Shavuot (Shavuoth, Shavuos)
The Hebrew term for the
Feast
of Pentecost. The literal meaning is "weeks," and refers to
the seven weeks from the time of Passover to the time of
Pentecost.
MORE
Shemini Atzeret (Shemini
Atzereth)
The Hebrew term for the
Holy
Day that immediately follows the seven days of the
Feast of
Tabernacles. It means literally "Eighth (Day) Assembly."
MORE
Shofar
The Hebrew term for a trumpet
made out of an animal horn, usually a ram's horn.
MORE
Simchat Torah (Simhat Torah)
A Hebrew term meaning
"Rejoicing of the Law." It is used to designate a
celebration held immediately after the seven days of the
Feast of Tabernacles.
MORE
Solemn Feast
An annual (or regularly
re-occurring) religious observance. The adjective "solemn"
in this phrase does not refer to "soberness," as the word
usually implies in modern English. It is derived from a
Latin word that implies "regularly appointed."
MORE
Sukkah
The Hebrew term for the kind
of temporary "booth" constructed for the
Feast of
Tabernacles.
MORE
Sukkot (Sukkoth, Succot,
Succoth, Sukkos)
The Hebrew term for the
Feast
of Tabernacles. It literally means "Booths," or temporary
dwellings. MORE
Synagogue
The English version of the
term for a Jewish religious assembly. It also commonly
refers to the building used for such purposes.
Tabernacle (The)
The movable structure created
by order of God to Moses for religious ceremonies on behalf
of the Israelites while they were wandering in the
Wilderness for 40 years after the Exodus. Its general
structure and contents were eventually imitated, with much
greater elaboration, in the Temple built by Solomon.
MORE
Tabernacles
An English word often used to
translate the Hebrew term for the temporary huts built for
the Feast of Tabernacles.
MORE
Talmud
The Hebrew term for the
combination of the writings of the Mishna and the
Gemara. The Torah is the term for the written Law
of the Old Testament of the Bible. Judaism has from ancient
times also recognized the authority of an unwritten
collection of teachings known as the "Oral Law," passed
down, it was believed, from the time of Moses to the
earliest centuries AD. In about 200 AD, this Oral Law was
codified in writing as the Mishna. For the next few
centuries, more Jewish sages discussed and debated the
content of the Mishna. Their discussions and
conclusions were eventually compiled into a collection
called the Gemara. Together, the Mishna and
Gemara comprise the Talmud.
MORE
Tanach (Tanak,
Tanakh)
The Hebrew designation for
the collection of writings usually termed "The Old
Testament" by Christians. Since Judaism does not recognize
the inspiration of the New Testament, the Tanach is
what Jews consider "The Bible."
Tishri
The Hebrew name of the
seventh month on the Hebrew calendar, a month in Autumn
spanning a period in either September or October or parts of
both. It is the month which contains the observance of the
Day of Trumpets, the
Day of Atonement, the
Feast of
Tabernacles, and the Eighth Day Assembly.
Torah
A Hebrew word that means, in
general, "instruction," but which is typically used as a
specific term for either the first five books of the Old
Testament, or the "Law" as given to the
Israelites through Moses.
MORE
Unleavened Bread
Hebrew:
Matzo. Food
items made from grain and baked without the use of any
"leavening" agent such as yeast which would "puff them up."
MORE
Wave Sheaf
A special offering of grain
historically made during the
Feast of Unleavened Bread in ancient times,
consisting of a container of grain beaten from the stalks of
a "sheaf" of barley, the first harvested in the Spring. The
container was lifted up, or "waved," before the Lord in a
ceremony at the Tabernacle and later at the Temple in
Jerusalem. MORE
Yom Kippur
A Hebrew
term meaning literally "Day of Covering." It is commonly
translated Day
of Atonement in English, and is the designation of the
Holy
Day that falls on Tishri 10.
MORE
Yom Teruah
A Hebrew term meaning
literally "Day (Yom) of Blowings" or "Day of Clamor." It is
commonly translated Day of Trumpets in English, and is the
designation of the Holy Day that falls on
Tishri 1.
MORE
Yom Tov
A Hebrew term literally
meaning "Good (tov) Day (yom)." It is commonly translated as
Holy Day in English.
MORE
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